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1. Tacitus (c. 56–120 CE)
Work: Annals, Book 15, Chapter 44
Context: Refers to Nero blaming Christians for the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE.
"Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus..."
Significance: Tacitus was a Roman historian and senator. His reference confirms:
Jesus (called "Christus") was executed under Pontius Pilate during Tiberius’s reign.
There was a growing group of followers ("Christians") in Rome.
Reliability: Most scholars consider this an authentic and independent Roman account.
2. Josephus (c. 37–100 CE)
Work: Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, Chapter 3 (and also Book 20)
There are two references to Jesus in Josephus:
a. The "Testimonium Flavianum" (Book 18.3.3)
"About this time there lived Jesus, a wise man, if indeed one ought to call him a man..."
This passage has likely been partially altered by Christian scribes (especially the miraculous claims).
Scholars believe a core reference to Jesus is authentic, but the pious additions were likely added later.
b. Reference to James, the brother of Jesus (Book 20.9.1)
"...the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James..."
Significance: Strong evidence that Josephus referred to a historical Jesus indirectly by mentioning his brother James.
Considered more reliable than the Testimonium since it is less likely to have been tampered with.
5. The Babylonian Talmud (Jewish writings, 3rd–5th century CE)
Various references to a figure called Yeshu (or Yeshua), who was executed on the eve of Passover.
"On the eve of Passover, Yeshu was hanged..." (Sanhedrin 43a)
"Hanged" is a euphemism for crucifixion.
May reflect Jewish traditions remembering Jesus' execution.
Often hostile in tone, but still may preserve historical kernels.
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