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India's innovative spirit continued over the past millennium with significant contributions:
**Mathematics & Science:** In the 1500s, the **Kerala School of Astronomy**, including thinkers like **Madhava**, pioneered foundational concepts for calculus (infinite series, differentiation) centuries before European developments.
**Material Science:** The **iron pillar** in Delhi (c. 400 CE, but corrosion-resistant for over 1600 years) showcases early advanced metallurgy. Later, **Wootz steel** (the precursor to Damascus steel) continued to be a major export and technological marvel.
**Medicine:** The field of **Sushruta Samhita**-based surgery and Ayurveda continued to develop. A major 20th-century contribution is **Sushruta's rhinoplasty technique** being revived and formalized, forming a basis for modern plastic surgery procedures.
**Modern Contributions:**
* **Pentavalent Vaccine:** India's **Biological E.** developed a low-cost, single-shot vaccine against five deadly diseases, a major global health advancement.
* **Unified Payments Interface (UPI):** This real-time payment system revolutionized digital finance, making India a world leader in mobile-based banking transactions.
* **Mangalyaan:** The **Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)** made history in 2014 by becoming the first nation to reach Mars' orbit on its first attempt and at a record-low cost.